An Introduction to Research on Sexual and Gender Diversity
Research on gender and sexual diversity is scattered across disciplines and approaches. Starting to work on the topic can therefore be overwhelming. On this page we aim to bring together references and links to some of the articles that have been inspiring or helpful to us to start producing quantitative sociological and demographic research on the socioeconomic outcomes and family lives of LGBTQ* people. We hope this is helpful to any reader coming across this list!
Concepts and Measurement
A useful article explaining the different concepts of sexual orientation, sexual identity, sexual behavior and sexual attraction:
Salomaa, A. C., & Matsick, J. L. (2019). Carving sexuality at its joints: Defining sexual orientation in research and clinical practice. Psychological assessment, 31(2), 167. Link
A comparison of bisexual and queer identities:
Mereish, E. H., Katz-Wise, S. L., & Woulfe, J. (2018). We’re here and we’re queer: Sexual orientation and sexual fluidity differences between bisexual and queer women. In Under the Bisexual Umbrella (pp. 125-139). Routledge. Link
An article on the fluid nature of sexual identity with a focus on bisexuality:
Diamond, L. M. (2008). Female bisexuality from adolescence to adulthood: results from a 10-year longitudinal study. Developmental psychology, 44(1), 5. Link
An article on how non-cisgender persons report on sexual identity:
Katz-Wise, S. L., Reisner, S. L., Hughto, J. W., & St. Amand, C. (2016). Differences in sexual orientation diversity and sexual fluidity in attractions among gender minority adults in Massachusetts. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(1), 74-84. Link
An article that helps understand the issues related to measurement notably once using an “Other” option in sexual identity questions and once translating questions to other languages:
Kühne, S., Kroh, M., & Richter, D. (2019). Comparing self-reported and partnership-inferred sexual orientation in household surveys. Journal of Official Statistics, 35(4), 777-805. Link
On measurement issues related to studying same-sex couples:
Régnier-Loilier, A. (2018). Are the Generations and Gender Surveys well suited for studying same-sex couples?. European Journal of Population, 34, 567-578. Link
Kreider, R. M., Bates, N., & Mayol-García, Y. (2017). Improving measurement of same-sex couple households in Census Bureau surveys: Results from recent tests (Working Paper No. SEHSD-WP2017-28). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Link
On sexual identity disclosure:
Doan, L., & Mize, T. D. (2020). Sexual identity disclosure among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Sociological Science, 7, 504-527. Link
An introduction to the measures included in the General Social Survey to measure gender identity
Lagos, D., & Compton, D. L. (2021). Evaluating the use of a two-step gender identity measure in the 2018 General Social Survey. Demography, 58(2), 763-772. Link
An introduction to the possibilities to use the German SOEP data to study the LGBTQ* population:
Fischer, M. M., Kroh, M., De Vries, L., Kasprowski, D., Kühne, S., Richter, D., & Zindel, Z. (2022). Sexual and Gender Minority (SGM) Research Meets Household Panel Surveys: Research Potentials of the German Socio-Economic Panel and Its Boost Sample of SGM Households. European Sociological Review, 38(2), 321-335. Link
LGBTQ* Population Size and Sociodemographic Profiles
A pioneering article on the increases in non-cisgender identities across birth cohorts in the US:
Lagos, D. (2022). Has There Been a Transgender Tipping Point? Gender Identification Differences in US Cohorts Born Between 1935 and 2001. American Journal of Sociology, 128(1), 94-143. Link
A pioneering article on the amount of people living in same-sex couples and their characteristics:
Black, D., Gates, G., Sanders, S., & Taylor, L. (2000). Demographics of the gay and lesbian population in the United States: Evidence from available systematic data sources. Demography, 37(2), 139-154. Link
One of the very few quantitative articles on queer people:
Goldberg, S. K., Rothblum, E. D., Russell, S. T., & Meyer, I. H. (2020). Exploring the Q in LGBTQ: Demographic characteristic and sexuality of Queer people in a US representative sample of sexual minorities. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 7(1), 101. Link
One of the very few quantitative articles on asexual people:
Poston Jr, D. L., & Baumle, A. K. (2010). Patterns of asexuality in the United States. Demographic Research, 23, 509-530. Link
Discrimination, Stigma and Minority Stress
A great illustration of the concept of minority stress:
Frost, D. M., LeBlanc, A. J., de Vries, B., Alston-Stepnitz, E., Stephenson, R., & Woodyatt, C. (2017). Couple-level minority stress: An examination of same-sex couples’ unique experiences. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 58(4), 455-472. Link
An overview of research on the concept of structural stigma:
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. American psychologist, 71(8), 742. Link
See also:
Perales, F., & Todd, A. (2018). Structural stigma and the health and wellbeing of Australian LGB populations: Exploiting geographic variation in the results of the 2017 same-sex marriage plebiscite. Social Science & Medicine, 208, 190-199. Link
An article that aims to capture the content of stereotypes towards LGB people:
Mize, T. D., & Manago, B. (2018). The stereotype content of sexual orientation. Social Currents, 5(5), 458-478. Link
An article on the how gender shapes sexual identity categorization by others:
Mize, T. D., & Manago, B. (2018). Precarious sexuality: How men and women are differentially categorized for similar sexual behavior. American Sociological Review, 83(2), 305-330. Link
The impact of policies
On the effects of banning/legalizing same-sex marriage
Boertien, D., & Vignoli, D. (2019). Legalizing same-sex marriage matters for the subjective well-being of individuals in same-sex unions. Demography, 56(6), 2109-2121. Link
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2010). The impact of institutional discrimination on psychiatric disorders in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: A prospective study. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 452–459. Link
Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D., Horne, S. G., & Miller, A. D. (2009). Marriage amendments and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 56–66. Link
Educational Attainment
“Instant classic” article on sexual identity and education in the US.
Mittleman, J. (2022). Intersecting the academic gender gap: The education of lesbian, gay, and bisexual America. American Sociological Review, 87(2), 303-335. Link
One of the few studies not on the US looking at occupation but also education:
Verbakel, E. (2013). Occupational status of partnered gay men and lesbians in the Netherlands: How to explain the gap with men and women in heterosexual couples? Social Science Research, 42(3), 942-956. Link
Review article on experiences at school:
Pearson, J., & Wilkinson, L. (2018). School experiences and educational opportunities for LGBTQ students. Handbook of the Sociology of Education in the 21st Century, 193-218. Link
Earnings
Must-read overview articles on research in economics and related social sciences:
Badgett, M. L., Carpenter, C. S., & Sansone, D. (2021). LGBTQ economics. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35(2), 141-170. Link
Valfort, M. (2017), “LGBTI in OECD Countries: A Review”,
OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers,
No. 198, OECD Publishing, Paris. Link
State-of-the art sociological paper on the topic:
Mize, T. D. (2016). Sexual orientation in the labor market. American Sociological Review, 81(6), 1132-1160. Link
Meta-analysis of studies on earnings:
Drydakis, N. (2022). Sexual orientation and earnings: a meta-analysis 2012–2020. Journal of Population Economics, 35(2), 409-440. Link
Parenthood
Two great review articles to get familiar with research on LGBTQ* families
Moore, M. R., & Stambolis-Ruhstorfer, M. (2013). LGBT sexuality and families at the start of the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 491-507. Link
Reczek, C. (2020). Sexual‐and gender‐minority families: A 2010 to 2020 decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 300-325. Link
An article that brings together findings from pioneering research on same-sex couples:
Gates, G. J. (2015). Marriage and family: LGBT individuals and same-sex couples. The Future of Children, 67-87. Link
A key demographic article on same-sex marriages in Sweden using registry data:
Kolk, M., & Andersson, G. (2020). Two decades of same-sex marriage in Sweden: A demographic account of developments in marriage, childbearing, and divorce. Demography, 57(1), 147-169. Link
An excellent article on the heteronormative biases in access to assisted reproduction:
Rozental, A., & Malmquist, A. (2015). Vulnerability and acceptance: lesbian women’s family-making through assisted reproduction in Swedish public health care. Journal of GLBT Family studies, 11(2), 127-150. Link
A book and article on LGBTQ* relationships, its intersection by ethnicity and how they can help us understanding gender inequality:
Moore, M. R. (2008). Gendered power relations among women: A study of household decision making in Black, lesbian stepfamilies. American Sociological Review, 73(2), 335-356. Link
Sullivan, M. (2004). The family of woman: Lesbian mothers, their children, and the undoing of gender. Univ of California Press. Link
Selection of Birth Mothers and Social Mothers
Boye, K., & Evertsson, M. (2021). Who Gives Birth (First) in Female Same‐Sex Couples in Sweden?. Journal of Marriage and Family, 83(4), 925-941. Link
On parenthood desires:
Riskind, R. G., & Patterson, C. J. (2010). Parenting intentions and desires among childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual individuals. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(1), 78–81. Link
Partnering
One of the first articles using sexual identity measures to look at partnering among LGB people:
Carpenter, C., & Gates, G. J. (2008). Gay and lesbian partnership: Evidence from California. Demography, 45(3), 573-590. Link
Our own contributions toward documenting the partnering trajectories of LGB people in the UK:
Ophir, A., & Boertien, D. (2023). Re-considering Re-partnering: New Insights About Gender and Sexuality in the Study of Second Union Formation. Link
Sexuality and Demographic Change: Documenting Family Formation Trajectories and Cohort Change in the LGB Population. Link
On the rise of same-sex unions:
Rosenfeld, M. J., & Kim, B.-S. (2005). The Independence of Young Adults and the Rise of Interracial and Same-Sex Unions. American Sociological Review, 70(4), 541–562. Link
On attitudes towards marriage and relationships:
Bosley-Smith, E. R., & Reczek, C. (2018). Before and after “I Do”: Marriage processes for mid-life gay and lesbian married couples. Journal of homosexuality, 65(14), 1985-2004. Link
Hank, K., & Wetzel, M. (2018). Same-sex relationship experiences and expectations regarding partnership and parenthood. Demographic Research, 39, 701–718. Link
On separation:
Lau, C. Q. (2012). The stability of same‐sex cohabitation, different‐sex cohabitation, and marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(5), 973-988. Link
Manning, W. D., Brown, S. L., & Stykes, J. B. (2016). Same-sex and different-sex cohabiting couple relationship stability. Demography, 53(4), 937-953. Link
On partner selection:
Verbakel, E., & Kalmijn, M. (2014). Assortative mating among Dutch married and cohabiting same‐sex and different‐sex couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(1), 1-12. Link
A framework for studying relations:
Thomeer, M. B., Umberson, D., & Reczek, C. (2020). The gender‐as‐relational approach for theorizing about romantic relationships of sexual and gender minority mid‐to later‐life adults. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 12(2), 220-237. Link
Migration
Coming soon
Well-being
A nice article on how social networks are structured:
Fischer, M. M. (2022). Social exclusion and resilience: Examining social network stratification among people in same-sex and different-sex relationships. Social Forces, 100(3), 1284-1306. Link
Depression among bisexual people:
Pollitt, A. M., Muraco, J. A., Grossman, A. H., & Russell, S. T. (2017). Disclosure stress, social support, and depressive symptoms among cisgender bisexual youth. Journal of Marriage and Family, 79(5), 1278-1294. Link
On well-being trajectories:
Perales, F. (2016). The costs of being “different”: Sexual identity and subjective wellbeing over the life course. Social Indicators Research, 127, 827-849. Link
On partnership dynamics and well-being:
Umberson, D., Donnelly, R., & Pollitt, A. M. (2018). Marriage, social control, and health behavior: A dyadic analysis of same-sex and different-sex couples. Journal of health and social behavior, 59(3), 429-446. Link
Concepts of Sexual and Gender Diversity
An Introduction to Academic Research
This project is financed by the European Research Council (ERC-2020-STG-948557-MINEQ)